土木工程是最古老的工程后，軍事工程學(xué)科之一。它一直以來，人類生存生活的各個方面的一個開端。直到近代也沒有土木工程與建筑之間明確的區(qū)分。民間建筑和工程的主要方面之一，是結(jié)構(gòu)工程。隨著結(jié)構(gòu)工程的結(jié)構(gòu)必須能夠成功支持本身

If You Build It …People say the government should be run more like a business. So imagine yourself as CEO. Your bridges are crumbling. Your air-traffic control system doesn’t use GPS. The Society of Ci

Build a project facilities to want to pass commonly survey, design and construction three stages, need to use engineering geological prospecting, geological investigation Hydrological geology exploration and engineering s

Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.為了消除這種額外費(fèi)用,結(jié)構(gòu)工程師們已經(jīng)發(fā)展了一些結(jié)構(gòu)體系。Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural

the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), and the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC).[6] The Romans developed civil structures

土木工程 英語文章

摘要：為了研究連續(xù)型拓?fù)鋬?yōu)化理論在實(shí)際工程中的應(yīng)用，該文給出了一種多層鋼框架支撐體系連續(xù)型拓?fù)鋬?yōu)化設(shè)計方法?；陟`敏度分析，探討了連續(xù)體結(jié)構(gòu)在多工況荷載作用下、同時受應(yīng)力和多位移約束的拓?fù)鋬?yōu)化刪除準(zhǔn)則。為保證拓?fù)?/p>

這些都是PEC土木工程英語證書考試的輔導(dǎo)用書。應(yīng)該是最好的了。內(nèi)容覆蓋:鋼結(jié)構(gòu)、混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)、砌體結(jié)構(gòu)、地基與基礎(chǔ)、建筑材料與施工技術(shù)。主要考察土木工程類專業(yè)術(shù)語的閱讀與理解。 本科畢業(yè)生土木工程專業(yè)參考文獻(xiàn)怎么寫 參考文獻(xiàn)就是你所

土木工程專業(yè)的英文論文格式均以美國土木工程師協(xié)會出版社發(fā)布的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)格式為準(zhǔn)。英語論文用激光打印機(jī)打印，打印稿為黑白稿，彩色打印件會影響出版效果。版心：a4紙，上、下頁邊距3.5 cm，左、右頁邊距均為3.25 mm。論文

求一篇土木工程外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯英語漢語都要謝謝3000字油箱、835877276哥哥們可以單獨(dú)發(fā)油箱嗎我一堆同學(xué)都在百度有的已經(jīng)看到這個帖子了 求一篇土木工程外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯 英語漢語都要謝謝 3000字 油箱、 835877276哥哥們 可以單獨(dú)發(fā)油 箱嗎

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, da

建筑承包商雇用的勞動力,一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中從事技術(shù)活,如木工,管道工,工會成員和電工工會,小工則執(zhí)行了分配給他們的工作。在施工期間,一切工作都要驗(yàn)收。因此,業(yè)主通過建筑師和監(jiān)理經(jīng)常進(jìn)行督查?？赡苁敲麨楣こ虇T,建筑

[1] Allen H G and Bulson P S.Background to Bucking London Mcraw-Hill(UK) 1980 [2] David. I. Keli Lan Yang Aihua. Project Management Strategy and Implementation. China Machine Press 2002 (The

土木工程外文文獻(xiàn)

土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直譯是民用工程，它是建造各種工程的統(tǒng)稱。它既指建設(shè)的對象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程設(shè)施，也指應(yīng)用的材料設(shè)備和進(jìn)行的勘測，設(shè)計施工，保養(yǎng)，維修等專業(yè)技術(shù)。土木工程隨著人類社

下一步,該網(wǎng)架是為建設(shè)工程準(zhǔn)備的。這項工作為地下室開挖和基礎(chǔ)開挖的深度,以及公用事業(yè)管道轉(zhuǎn)移找到正確的標(biāo)高。深挖掘,土方支撐,底部排出。建筑開始于基礎(chǔ)上,然后是承重墻和結(jié)構(gòu)框架的施工。**,樓梯,或電梯的安裝,可讓施工人員往返于

此外,還必須考慮各種客房的朝向問題,當(dāng)然最好盡可能的將那些經(jīng)常使用的房間朝南設(shè)置。然而,在考慮到周圍的環(huán)境和地點(diǎn)、道路等多方面因素,往往很難達(dá)到最佳要求。在解決這些復(fù)雜的問題,還必須按照當(dāng)?shù)爻鞘幸?guī)劃條例所涉及的對公共設(shè)施,人口密

an optimization method for an optimal topology design of multistory steel frame bracing systems is presented.On a sensitivity analysis,

求土木工程框架結(jié)構(gòu)方面的外文翻譯 原文譯文都要 謝謝了!!!!!

3.3.2 in the assembly process, the class and group leaders and assembly should carefully read the map and record important data, processes, and installation of pipelines to the scope, found problems in a

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, da

Construction Safty:Safty in construction is the most important item in all construction items. it covers all the safty matters during the operation, including management, finance and logistic system et al.The gove

與成本控制,最重要的決議的質(zhì)量,在設(shè)備完成設(shè)計和規(guī)劃階段,而不是在施工期間。正是在這種初步階段,即組件配置、物料規(guī)范和功能性能決定。施工過程的質(zhì)量控制,由大量的確保符合原先的設(shè)計和規(guī)劃的決定。

我們比以往任何時候更多地依賴于團(tuán)隊建設(shè)承包商和發(fā)明人誰設(shè)計和建造以及維護(hù)復(fù)雜的環(huán)境，環(huán)繞著我們的日常生活。一個民間的施工隊伍的工作/工程師以上僅僅是這些基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施建設(shè)方面。他們有很多活動，包括起草，決策，人機(jī)交互，通

求一篇施工方面文章及英文翻譯 謝

土木工程英文 “ciil engineering”翻譯為“土木工程”，要從兩個方面來看成因。①“civil engineering”及相關(guān)詞匯的含義在不斷發(fā)展變化。②從西文翻譯為東方文字（中文/日文）時的考量與變化。有答主提到，“civil”在“civil

第五節(jié) 水工期建筑物術(shù)語 1．壩 dam 阻攔或攔蓄水充、壅高或調(diào)節(jié)上游水位的擋水建筑物。頂部不泄水的稱非溢流壩，頂部泄水的稱溢流壩。2．壩軸線 dam axis 代表壩位置的一條橫貫河谷的線。3．重力壩 gravity dam 主要

1． 磨擦系數(shù) coefficient of friction 在兩物體接觸面上的摩擦力與法向壓力的比值。2． 質(zhì)量密度 mass density來源： examda 單位體積材料（包括巖石和土）的質(zhì)量，簡稱密度。3． 重力密度 force (weight) density

airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting

第四節(jié) 橋、涵洞和隧道術(shù)語 1. 橋 bridge 為公路、鐵路、城市道路、管線、行人等跨越河流、山谷、道路等天然或人工障礙而建造的架空建筑物。2. 簡支梁橋 simple supported girder bridge 以簡支梁作為橋跨結(jié)構(gòu)的主要承重構(gòu)件

土木工程外文翻譯加譯文

　　building types and design 　　A building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in . 　　As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities . 　　Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types sin***-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used . 　　Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well. 　　Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center . 　　In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred sin***-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms . 　　Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done. 　　An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms . 　　It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably ** south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on . 　　There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare . 　　翻譯： 　　建筑類型和設(shè)計 　　建筑物與人們有著緊密的聯(lián)系，他為人們提供必要的空間，用以工作和生活。 　　根據(jù)適用類型不同，建筑物可以分為兩類：工業(yè)建筑和民用建筑。工業(yè)建筑包括各個工廠或工業(yè)生產(chǎn)所使用建筑，民用建筑是指那些人們用以居住，就業(yè)，教育和其他社會活動的建筑場所。 　　工業(yè)建筑的廠房可用于采礦業(yè)，冶金工業(yè)，機(jī)械制造，化學(xué)工業(yè)和紡織工業(yè)等各類領(lǐng)域的加工和制造。廠房可分為兩種類型：單層的和多層的。工業(yè)建筑也屬于建筑的一種。但是，工業(yè)建筑與民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。 　　民用建筑按使用可分為兩大類：住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要適應(yīng)家庭生活。每個單位應(yīng)包括至少三個必要客房：起居室，廚房和廁所。公共建筑可在政治，文化活動，管理工作和其他服務(wù)，如學(xué)校，寫字樓，公園，醫(yī)院，商店，車站，劇院，體育館，賓館，展覽館，洗浴池，等等。他們都有著不同的職能，這反過來又需要不同的設(shè)計類型。 　　房屋是用以住人的. 其基本功能是提供住房的內(nèi)容，但今天人們需要更多的住房內(nèi)容。一個家庭在進(jìn)入一個新的社區(qū)后將知道，現(xiàn)有住房不僅要符合其安全，健康和舒適等標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。還要考慮其附近是否有相應(yīng)的配套設(shè)施，如食品市場，學(xué)校，商店，圖書館，電影院，以及社區(qū)中心等。 　　在60年代中期住房最重要的價值是足夠大的空間和方便的出入交通。大多數(shù)家庭會首選約半英畝面積土地的家庭住宅，這樣將提供足夠的空間的用以業(yè)余活動。在高度工業(yè)化的國家，許多家庭的首選是那種盡可能遠(yuǎn)離市中心商業(yè)圈的住房，即使距離上班地點(diǎn)不得不有一段距離。相當(dāng)多的家庭首選是郊區(qū)的住房，因?yàn)樗麄兊闹饕康氖且h(yuǎn)離噪音，擁擠和混亂。擁有方便的公共交通使得距離不再是一個決定性因素，因?yàn)榇蠖鄶?shù)人都是開著自己的汽車去上班了。人們現(xiàn)在主要感興趣的是戶型，房間的大小和臥室的數(shù)目。 　　在工程項目開始之前，要做好建筑設(shè)計和施工流程,讓人提前知道該建筑建成后是什么樣子以及下一步應(yīng)該做什么。 　　在建筑設(shè)計中要特別重視房間的布局，其目的是提供最大的便利與可能的用途。在一個住宅建筑設(shè)計中，布局可考慮以下三個方面： “白天” ， “夜晚”和“服務(wù)”。必須注意這些空間區(qū)域之間的連通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐廳，起居室和廚房，但其他房間可能會增加，如書房，并有可能成為一個大廳。起居室通常是最大的，往往是一個餐廳，也或可能有廚房、凹室等。 “夜間”房間包括臥室、客房?！胺?wù)”用房間包括廚房，浴室，儲藏室 ，和廁所等。廚房和儲藏室需設(shè)置在一起，以方便其房間功能的使用。 　　此外，還必須考慮各種客房的朝向問題，當(dāng)然最好盡可能的將那些經(jīng)常使用的房間朝南設(shè)置。然而，在考慮到周圍的環(huán)境和地點(diǎn)、道路等多方面因素，往往很難達(dá)到最佳要求。在解決這些復(fù)雜的問題，還必須按照當(dāng)?shù)爻鞘幸?guī)劃條例所涉及的對公共設(shè)施，人口密度，建筑物高度，綠化面積，建筑紅線等的要求，還要考慮到有相鄰建筑的情況，等等。 　　盡管工業(yè)建筑需要符合當(dāng)?shù)爻鞘幸?guī)劃條例但很少有標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化的工業(yè)樓宇。現(xiàn)代廠房建筑的趨勢是輕質(zhì)、通風(fēng)。一般的鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)或鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的工廠，可以得到一個“跌”型脊屋頂，把窗戶開向北以便使分布均勻的自然采光不會直射進(jìn)來造成刺眼。
現(xiàn)在的百度翻譯基本能滿足土木工程中英文的翻譯。我論文的英文摘要就是直接百度翻譯的，只需要修改幾個專業(yè)名詞就可以了。
Health care A new prescription for the poor 為貧窮者新開的處方 America is developing a two-tier health system, one for those with private insurance, the other for the less well-off 美國正在發(fā)展一個雙重的健康系統(tǒng)，一重是為那些有個人保險的人群，而另一重則是為那些不那么富裕的人群 Oct 8th 2011 | NEW YORK | from the print edition “IT’S time for Dancing with the Stars!”, a woman announces enthusiastically. At this New York health centre, wedged between housing projects to the east and Chinatown to the west, “dancing with the stars” means dancing with a physical therapist. An old man stands up with a nurse and begins a determined samba. “是時候和明星一起跳舞了！”一位女士滿懷熱情地宣告。在這個坐落于房屋工程的西面，唐人街東面的紐約健康中心，“和明星起舞”的意思是和一位物理治療師跳舞。一位老者和一個護(hù)士站起來，開始跳事先確定好的桑巴舞。 Comprehensive Care Management (CCM), which runs this centre, tries to keep old people active. To do so, explains Joseph Healy, the chief operating officer, is in the company’s best interest. The government pays CCM a capped rate for the care of its members. If someone gets sick, his health costs rise and the company’s margin shrinks. Mr Healy argues that the system is the best way to provide good care at a low cost. Increasingly others seem to agree. 經(jīng)營這個中心的綜合護(hù)理管理部門（CCM）努力保持老人們的活力。約瑟夫-海莉，首席運(yùn)營官解釋說，這樣做符合公司 的最佳利益。政府給這個部門一個封頂?shù)慕蛸N來讓他們照顧這些人。如果有人生病了，他的健康成本就會上升，公司的利潤就會萎縮。海莉先生確定說這個系統(tǒng)能夠 在一個低成本上提供最佳的護(hù)理。其他人也逐漸同意這個觀點(diǎn)。 Medicaid, America’s health programme for the poor, is in the process of being transformed. Over the next three years, New York will move its entire Medicaid population into “managed care”, paying companies a set rate to tend to the poor, rather than paying a fee for each service. New York is not alone. States from California to Mississippi are expanding managed care. It is the culmination of a steady shift in the way most poor Americans receive their health-care treatment. 公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助，即美國的窮人健康計劃，正在被改造的過程中。在接下來的 三年內(nèi)，紐約將把整個接受窮人健康計劃的人群納入“管理關(guān)懷”之中，付給公司們一個事先定好的費(fèi)用來照顧那些窮人，而不是按照項目來付費(fèi)。紐約不是唯一這 樣做的州。加州，密西西比州正在拓展管理關(guān)懷計劃。這代表一種正在進(jìn)行中的穩(wěn)步轉(zhuǎn)變，即大部分貧窮美國人接受健康關(guān)懷方式的轉(zhuǎn)變。 Medicaid is America’s sin*** biggest health programme. This year roughly one in five Americans will be covered by Medicaid for a month or more. It gobbles more federal and local money than any state programme, other than education. Costs will rise even more when Barack Obama’s health-care reform expands the programme by easing eligibility rules in 2014. Congress’s “supercommittee” is already considering cuts. However, there are more immediate pressures behind the present drive for change. 公 共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助是美國最大的單一健康計劃。今年，五個美國人中的一個就會被納入該計劃一個月或更長時間。除了教育之外，它比其他任何州的財政計劃耗去更多聯(lián)邦 和地方的經(jīng)費(fèi)。當(dāng)2014年奧巴馬的健康保險改革放寬適用人群而使整個計劃更加龐大的時候，成本將會進(jìn)一步上升。眾議院的“超級委員會”已經(jīng)在考慮削減經(jīng) 費(fèi)。然而，選擇這種變化，將會有更多即刻的壓力存在。 Enrolment in Medicaid jumped during the downturn, from 42.7m in December 2007 to 50.3m in June 2010. Mr Obama’s stimulus bill helped to pay for some of this, but that money has dried up. Faced with gaping deficits, some desperate governors slashed payments to hospitals and doctors, or refused to pay for trips to the dentist or oculist. But much the most important result has been structural: the expansion of managed care. 公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助計劃的參與人數(shù)在經(jīng)濟(jì)滑坡期間從2007年 12月的 4270萬人跳到了2010年6月的5030萬人。奧巴馬先生的經(jīng)濟(jì)刺激經(jīng)費(fèi)能夠幫助付掉其中的一部分，但是錢已經(jīng)被用光。面對資金短缺，一些絕望的州長 砍掉了給醫(yī)院和醫(yī)生的補(bǔ)助，或是拒絕支付牙醫(yī)和眼科醫(yī)生的旅行費(fèi)用。但是，更多地，最重要的結(jié)果是結(jié)構(gòu)上的：管理關(guān)懷的拓展。 States have dabbled in managed care for decades. The trend accelerated in the 1990s, with the share of Medicaid patients under this form of care reaching 72% by 2009. Now, however, there is a strong push for the remainder. States that did not have managed care, such as Louisiana, are introducing it. Other states are extending it to people previously deemed off limits: California and New York, for example, are moving the elderly and disabled into that system of care. Texas is targeting more than 400,000 Medicaid beneficiaries in the Rio Grande Valley. Local politicians had resisted the move, nervous that care might deteriorate. But the yawning deficit meant that they were overruled. 各個州涉足管理關(guān)懷已經(jīng)有幾 十年的歷史了。這個趨勢在90年代得到**發(fā)展，在2009年前使用這種護(hù)理方式的公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助病人占到了72%?，F(xiàn)在，對于剩下的人，這也是很強(qiáng)的推動 力。像路易斯安那州這樣沒有管理關(guān)懷的州正在引進(jìn)管理關(guān)懷。其他州也把這個拓展到原先被認(rèn)為不適用的人群：舉例說像加州和紐約州，正在把老人和殘障人士納 入這個系統(tǒng)中，德州的目標(biāo)是在格蘭德河谷超過400000公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助收益人群。地方政治家反對這個舉動，他們擔(dān)心這個護(hù)理系統(tǒng)將會變質(zhì)。但是巨大的赤字 意味著他們的觀點(diǎn)注定要被批駁。 The result is a country with two distinct tiers of health care. Most Americans with private insurance are still horrified by thoughts of health-management organisations and prefer to pay fees for each medical service. For the poor, managed care is becoming the norm. 結(jié)果就是一個國家有兩套截然不同的健康保險系統(tǒng)。大多數(shù)有個人保險的美國人仍舊害怕那些健康管理組織的想法而寧愿為單獨(dú)的醫(yī)療服務(wù)付費(fèi)。對于窮人來說，管理關(guān)懷已經(jīng)成為一種常規(guī)。 Advocates of managed care have high expectations. First, they hope that it will make costs more predictable. Second, they believe that the change will improve patients’ health. In managed care, a patient has a network of doctors and specialists. If the programme works properly, doctors can monitor all aspects of care, in contrast to the fragmented fee-for-service system. The contracts that states have with firms can set standards for quality. Texas, for instance, will cut 5% from a company’s payment if it does not meet what is required. 管理關(guān)懷的鼓吹者有著很高的 期待。首先，他們希望這能讓成本變得可以預(yù)測，其次，他們相信，這個改變可以改善病人的健康。在管理關(guān)懷中，一個病人有一個由醫(yī)生和專家組成的網(wǎng)絡(luò)。如果 這個計劃運(yùn)行良好，醫(yī)生可以監(jiān)測關(guān)懷的各個方面，相對于分離的的按服務(wù)付錢的系統(tǒng)來說。州政府和公司的合同可以為質(zhì)量定下標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。德州，舉例說，將會在付款 中扣除5%如果公司沒有達(dá)到要求的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。 The next step is to integrate care for those eligible for both Medicaid and Medicare, the federal programme for the old. These “duals” account for almost 40% of Medicaid’s costs and just 15% of its population. “If managed care can really deliver better care than fee-for-service”, says Diane Rowland, chair of the commission that advises Congress on Medicaid, “this is the population that could prove it.” 下一步是整合那些同時符合公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助和長者醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助計劃（聯(lián)邦老人醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助）的人群。這些“雙符合”人群占據(jù)了將近40%的公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ) 助成本和僅僅15%的人口數(shù)量?！叭绻芾黻P(guān)懷能真正比按項目付費(fèi)帶來更好的服務(wù)”，戴安-羅蘭德，委員會（指導(dǎo)國會在公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助政策上進(jìn)行決策）主任 說：“這是一群能證明管理關(guān)懷可行的人?！? But some, such as Norma Vescovo, are sceptical. As the head of the non-profit Independent Living Centre of Southern California (ILCSC), Ms Vescovo serves Medicaid patients with severe health problems. Over the years she has often sued California on policies that she thinks will hurt her vulnerable clients. On October 3rd her case moved to the Supreme Court. 但是一些人，例如像諾瑪-凡斯科夫就對此表示懷疑。作為非盈利的南加州獨(dú)立生活中心主任，凡斯科夫女士服務(wù)于那些有嚴(yán)重健康問題的接受公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助的病人。在這些年間，她經(jīng)?？馗婕又菡谝恍┱呱蠒λ囊恍┐嗳醯目蛻簟Ｔ?0月3日，她的案子被移到了上訴法院。 The outcome of Douglas v Independent Living Centre will have profound implications for the future of Medicaid. Ms Vescovo’s suit concerns cuts to hospitals and doctors. But the case will also guide the course of managed care. If ILCSC and its co-plaintiffs win, private groups will continue to be able to challenge states on policies they think violate federal Medicaid law. Ms Vescovo, who argues that California’s payment cuts would eviscerate her clients’ access to services, worries that under managed care the disabled might not be able to see the specialists they need. 道格拉斯 v 獨(dú)立生活中心的結(jié)果將會對公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助有深遠(yuǎn)的意義。凡斯科夫女士的訴訟影響到醫(yī)院和醫(yī)生的津貼削減。但是這個案子將會引領(lǐng)管理關(guān)懷的進(jìn)程。如果中心和其 他原告勝訴，私人團(tuán)體將會繼續(xù)在那些他們認(rèn)為違反聯(lián)邦法律的政策上挑戰(zhàn)州政府。凡斯科夫女士認(rèn)為說加州的支付削減計劃會讓她的客戶失去得到服務(wù)的機(jī)會，她 還擔(dān)心，在管理關(guān)懷之下，那些殘障人士可能不能見到那些他們需要的專家。 The question is how to supervise the experiments with managed care that are being carried out in various states. To date, Medicaid beneficiaries have been able to challenge the states in court. However, if the Supreme Court rules against ILCSC, that avenue will be closed. The Centres for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) technically can intervene if states do not provide proper access to care. In reality, CMS has few tools to do so. 問 題是怎么監(jiān)管在不同州試運(yùn)行的管理關(guān)懷。到目前為止，公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助受益者已經(jīng)能夠在法庭中挑戰(zhàn)政府。然而，如果上訴法庭結(jié)果不利于中心，那么這條路將會被 關(guān)閉。如果州政府沒有提供合適的關(guān)懷的話，公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助和長者醫(yī)療關(guān)懷中心理論上是能對此進(jìn)行干涉，但事實(shí)上，他們沒有太多辦法。 “I’m a big fan of managed care”, says Sara Rosenbaum, a professor at George Washington University, “but this transformation may happen with almost no federal oversight.” Medicaid beneficiaries are vulnerable, in worse health than Americans as a whole. Companies may strug*** to cut costs and provide good care as well. If states do not draft their contracts properly, or fail to be vigilant in monitoring patients’ health, their experiment in managed care could be a disaster. On the other hand, if states are careful they could provide an answer to the question that has vexed America for years: how to provide good, cheap health care. “我是 管理關(guān)懷的擁護(hù)者”，薩拉-羅森博姆，一位喬治華盛頓大學(xué)教授說，“但是這種轉(zhuǎn)變可能在沒有聯(lián)邦監(jiān)管的情況下發(fā)生?！惫册t(yī)療補(bǔ)助的受益者和你脆弱，健康 程度整體上比一般美國人要差。公司可能在削減成本的同時掙扎著同樣提供良好的服務(wù)。如果州政府們不好好起草他們的合同，或沒有警覺地監(jiān)控病人的健康的話， 他們在管理關(guān)懷上的實(shí)驗(yàn)可能會是一場災(zāi)難。另一方面，如果州政府們認(rèn)真的話，他們能為那個困擾美國人多年的問題提供答案，即怎么提供優(yōu)質(zhì)的便宜的健康關(guān) 懷。
Electric Power Systems 電力系統(tǒng) The modern society depends on the electricity supply more heavily than ever before. 現(xiàn)代社會的電力供應(yīng)依賴于更多地比以往任何時候。 It can not be imagined what the world should be if the electricity supply were interrupted all over the world. 它無法想象的世界應(yīng)該是什么，如果電力供應(yīng)中斷了世界各地。 Electric power systems (or electric energy systems), providing electricity to the modern society, have become indispensable components of the industrial world. 電力系統(tǒng)（或電力能源系統(tǒng)），提供電力到現(xiàn)代社會，已成為不可缺少的組成部分產(chǎn)業(yè)界的。 The first complete electric power system (comprising a generator, cable, fuse, meter, and loads) was built by Thomas Edison – the historic Pearl Street Station in New York City which began operation in September 1882. 第一個完整的電力系統(tǒng)（包括發(fā)電機(jī)，電纜，熔斷器，計量，并加載）的托馬斯愛迪生所建-站紐約市珍珠街的歷史始于1882年9月運(yùn)作。 This was a DC system consisting of a steam-engine-driven DC generator supplying power to 59 customers within an area roughly 1.5 km in radius. The load, which consisted entirely of incandescent lamps, was supplied at 110 V through an underground cable system. 這是一個半徑直流系統(tǒng)組成的一個蒸汽發(fā)動機(jī)驅(qū)動的直流發(fā)電機(jī)面積約1.5公里至59供電范圍內(nèi)的客戶。負(fù)載，其中包括完全的白熾燈，為V提供110通過地下電纜系統(tǒng)。 Within a few years similar systems were in operation in most large cities throughout the world. With the development of motors by Frank Sprague in 1884, motor loads were added to such systems. This was the beginning of what would develop into one of the largest industries in the world. In spite of the initial widespread use of DC systems, they were almost completely superseded by AC systems. By 1886, the limitations of DC systems were becoming increasingly apparent. They could deliver power only a short distance from generators. 在一個類似的系統(tǒng)在大多數(shù)大城市在世界各地運(yùn)行數(shù)年。隨著馬達(dá)的弗蘭克斯普拉格發(fā)展在1884年，電機(jī)負(fù)載被添加到這些系統(tǒng)。這是什么開始發(fā)展成為世界上最大的產(chǎn)業(yè)之一。在最初的直流系統(tǒng)廣泛使用盡管如此，他們幾乎完全被空調(diào)系統(tǒng)所取代。到1886年，直流系統(tǒng)的局限性也日益明顯。他們可以提供功率只有很短的距離從發(fā)電機(jī)。 To keep transmission power losses ( I 2 R ) and voltage drops to acceptable levels, voltage levels had to be high for long-distance power transmission. Such high voltages were not acceptable for generation and consumption of power; therefore, a convenient means for voltage transformation became a necessity. 為了保持發(fā)射功率損失（我2 R）和電壓下降到可接受的水平，電壓等級，必須長途輸電高。如此高的電壓不發(fā)電和電力消耗可以接受的，因此，電壓轉(zhuǎn)換成為一個方便的手段的必要性。 The development of the transformer and AC transmission by L. Gaulard and JD Gibbs of Paris, France, led to AC electric power systems. 在發(fā)展的變壓器，法國和交流輸電由L.巴黎戈拉爾和JD吉布斯導(dǎo)致交流電力系統(tǒng)。 In 1889, the first AC transmission line in North America was put into operation in Oregon between Willamette Falls and Portland. 1889年，第一次在北美交流傳輸線將在俄勒岡州波特蘭之間威拉梅特大瀑布和實(shí)施。 It was a sin***-phase line transmitting power at 4,000 V over a distance of 21 km. With the development of polyphase systems by Nikola Tesla, the AC system became even more attractive. By 1888, Tesla held several patents on AC motors, generators, transformers, and transmission systems. Westinghouse bought the patents to these early inventions, and they formed the basis of the present-day AC systems.這是一個單相線路傳輸功率為4,000公里，超過21 V系統(tǒng)的距離。隨著交流的發(fā)展多相系統(tǒng)由尼古拉特斯拉，成為更具吸引力的。通過1888年，特斯拉舉行交流多項專利電動機(jī)，發(fā)電機(jī)，變壓器和輸電系統(tǒng)。西屋公司購買了這些早期的發(fā)明專利，并形成了系統(tǒng)的基礎(chǔ)，現(xiàn)在的交流。 In the 1890s, there was considerable controversy over whether the electric utility industry should be standardized on DC or AC. By the turn of the century, the AC system had won out over the DC system for the following reasons: 在19世紀(jì)90年代，有很大的爭議或交流電力行業(yè)是否應(yīng)該統(tǒng)一于直流。到了世紀(jì)之交的，在交流系統(tǒng)贏得了原因出在下面的直流系統(tǒng)為： （1）Voltage levels can be easily transformed in AC systems, thus providing the flexibility for use of different voltages for generation, transmission, and consumption. （1）電壓水平可以很容易地改變了空調(diào)系統(tǒng)，從而提供了傳輸?shù)撵`活性，發(fā)電用不同的電壓和消費(fèi)。 （2）AC generators are much simpler than DC generators. （2）交流發(fā)電機(jī)簡單得多比直流發(fā)電機(jī)。 （3）AC motors are much simpler and cheaper than DC motors. （三）交流電機(jī)和電機(jī)便宜簡單得多，比直流。 The first three-phase line in North America went into operation in 1893——a 2,300 V, 12 km line in southern California. 前三個階段的美國北線投產(chǎn)于1893年- 1 2300五，南加州12公里路線研究。 In the early period of AC power transmission, frequency was not standardized. 在電力傳輸初期交流，頻率不規(guī)范。 Many different frequencies were in use: 25, 50, 60, 125, and 133 Hz. 有許多不同頻率的使用：25，50，60，125，和133赫茲。 This poses a problem for interconnection. Eventually 60 Hz was adopted as standard in North America, although 50 Hz was used in many other countries. 這對互連的問題。最后60赫茲標(biāo)準(zhǔn)獲得通過，成為美國在北美，雖然是50赫茲在許多其他國家使用。 The increasing need for transmitting large amounts of power over longer distance created an incentive to use progressively high voltage levels. To avoid the proliferation of an unlimited number of voltages, the industry has standardized voltage levels. In USA, the standards are 115, 138, 161, and 230 kV for the high voltage (HV) class, and 345, 500 and 765 kV for the extra-high voltage (EHV) class. In China, the voltage levels in use are 10, 35, 110 for HV class, and 220, 330 (only in Northwest China) and 500 kV for EHV class . 較長的距離越來越需要大量的電力傳輸多激勵他們逐步使用高壓的水平。為了避免電壓增殖數(shù)量無限，業(yè)界標(biāo)準(zhǔn)電壓水平。在美國，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)是115，138， 161，和230千伏的高電壓（高壓）類，345，500和765千伏級的特高電壓（超高壓）。在中國，各級使用電壓為10，35，110級高壓， 220，中國330（僅在西北）和500千伏超高壓類。 The first 750 kVtransmission line will be built in the near future in Northwest China. 第一個750 kVtransmission線將建在不久的將來在中國西北地區(qū)。 With the development of the AC/DC converting equipment, high voltage DC (HVDC) transmission systems have become more attractive and economical in special situations. 隨著交流的發(fā)展/直流轉(zhuǎn)換設(shè)備，高壓直流高壓直流（HVDC）傳輸系統(tǒng)已經(jīng)成為更具吸引力的經(jīng)濟(jì)和情況特殊。 The HVDC transmission can be used for transmission of large blocks of power over long distance, and providing an asynchronous link between systems where AC interconnection would be impractical because of system stability consideration or because nominal frequencies of the systems are different. 在高壓直流輸電可用于輸電塊以上的大長途電話，并提供不同系統(tǒng)間的異步連接在AC聯(lián)網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)將是不切實(shí)際的，因?yàn)榉€(wěn)定考慮，或因標(biāo)稱頻率的系統(tǒng)。 The basic requirement to a power system is to provide an uninterrupted energy supply to customers with acceptable voltages and frequency. 基本要求到電源系統(tǒng)是提供一個不間斷的能源供應(yīng)，以客戶可接受的電壓和頻率。 Because electricity can not be massively stored under a simple and economic way, the production and consumption of electricity must be done simultaneously. A fault or misoperation in any stages of a power system may possibly result in interruption of electricity supply to the customers. 由于電力無法大量儲存在一個簡單的方法和經(jīng)濟(jì)，電力的生產(chǎn)和消費(fèi)必須同時進(jìn)行。系統(tǒng)的故障或誤操作的權(quán)力在任何階段可能導(dǎo)致電力供應(yīng)中斷給客戶。 Therefore, a normal continuous operation of the power system to provide a reliable power supply to the customers is of paramount importance. 因此，一個正常的電力系統(tǒng)連續(xù)運(yùn)行的，提供可靠的電力供應(yīng)給客戶的重要性是至關(guān)重要的。 Power system stability may be broadly defined as the property of a power system that enables it to remain in a state of operating equilibrium under normal operating conditions and to regain an acceptable state of equilibrium after being subjected to a disturbance. 電力系統(tǒng)穩(wěn)定，可廣泛定義為干擾財產(chǎn)的權(quán)力系統(tǒng)，可繼續(xù)經(jīng)營的狀態(tài)下正常運(yùn)行的平衡條件和后向遭受恢復(fù)一個可以接受的平衡狀態(tài)。 Instability in a power system may be manifested in many different ways depending on the system configuration and operating mode. 在電力系統(tǒng)的不穩(wěn)定可能會表現(xiàn)在經(jīng)營方式和多種不同的方式取決于系統(tǒng)配置。 Traditionally, the stability problem has been one of maintaining synchronous operation. Since power systems rely on synchronous machines for generation of electrical power, a necessary condition for satisfactory system operation is that all synchronous machines remain in synchronism or, colloquially "in step". This aspect of stability is influenced by the dynamics of generator rotor an***s and power-an*** relationships, and then referred to " rotor an*** stability ". 傳統(tǒng)上，穩(wěn)定性問題一直是一個保持同步運(yùn)行。由于電力系統(tǒng)的發(fā)電電力，一個令人滿意的系統(tǒng)運(yùn)行的必要條件是，依靠同步電機(jī)同步電機(jī)都留在同步或通俗的“步驟”。這一方面是受穩(wěn)定的發(fā)電機(jī)轉(zhuǎn)子的動態(tài)角度和功角的關(guān)系，然后提到“轉(zhuǎn)子角穩(wěn)定”。
童鞋你好！ 這個估計需要自己搜索了！ 網(wǎng)上基本很難找到免費(fèi)給你服務(wù)的！ 我在這里給你點(diǎn)搜索國際上常用的外文數(shù)據(jù)庫： ---------------------------------------------------------- ❶ISI web of knowledge Engineering Village2 ❷Elsevier SDOL數(shù)據(jù)庫 IEEE/IEE(IEL) ❸EBSCOhost RSC英國皇家化學(xué)學(xué)會 ❹ACM美國計算機(jī)學(xué)會 ASCE美國土木工程師學(xué)會 ❺Springer電子期刊 WorldSciNet電子期刊全文庫 ❻Nature周刊 NetLibrary電子圖書 ❼ProQuest學(xué)位論文全文數(shù)據(jù)庫 ❽國道外文專題數(shù)據(jù)庫 CALIS西文期刊目次數(shù)據(jù)庫 ❾推薦使用ISI web of knowledge Engineering Village2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 中文翻譯得自己做了，實(shí)在不成就***翻譯。 弄完之后，自己閱讀幾遍弄順了就成啦！ 學(xué)校以及老師都不會看這個東西的！ 外文翻譯不是論文的主要內(nèi)容！ 所以，很容易過去的！ 祝你好運(yùn)！
自己去sciencedirect，springerlink等外文數(shù)據(jù)庫下載啊 或者到知網(wǎng)，維普等中文數(shù)據(jù)庫下載 很多的，校園網(wǎng)內(nèi)免費(fèi)獲取 校園網(wǎng)外可以利用goo***學(xué)術(shù)搜索，有部分能免費(fèi)下載
恩，好的 吧，土木工程畢業(yè)論文參考文獻(xiàn)資料有一份.
我只知道中文的，你可以看下（土木工程），OA期刊，可以免費(fèi)下載文獻(xiàn)
Civil engineering is the oldest branch of the profession of engineering after military engineering. Many of the important things in our lives that we take for granted are the product of civil engineering. The construction of the dams and power stations that provide the electricity we use every day requires civil engineers.The water and sewage treatment plants that provide us with safe water supplies require the expertise of civil engineers.The paths and roads we travel are civil engineering projects. In fact most structures, large and small, require the help of a civil engineer whether in the designing, planning or managing of the project. Civil engineers also help to preserve our environment by assisting in the cleaning up of existing pollution and planning ways to reduce future pollution of our air, land and water Civil Engineering gives us Quality of Life ! 翻譯： 土木工程是軍事工程學(xué)演變而來的工程專業(yè)的一個最古老分支.許多我們生活中被認(rèn)為是理所當(dāng)然的重要事物都是土木工程的產(chǎn)物. 為我們?nèi)粘Ｉ罟?yīng)電力的水壩和發(fā)電站,它們的建設(shè)就需要土木工程師.為我們提供安全用水的生活用水和污水處理廠也需要土木工程師的專業(yè)知識.我們出行交通所必需的道路,正是土木工程的實(shí)例. 事實(shí)上,許多建筑物,不論大小,在工程的設(shè)計、規(guī)劃和管理階段都需要土木工程師的協(xié)助. 土木工程師也通過清理現(xiàn)存的污染和規(guī)劃一些方法來減少未來空氣、土壤和水中的污染,從而幫助保護(hù)我們的環(huán)境. 土木工程為我們創(chuàng)造高品質(zhì)的人生!
找盟主去罷